MCQs on Biology (General Science) for Govt. Exams

• The gymnosperms (gymnos: naked, Sperma: seeds) are planted in which the ovules are not enclosed by any ovary wall and remain exposed, both before and after fertilization.
• Gymnosperms include medium-sized trees or tall trees and shrubs.
• Gymnosperms are mainly classified into two groups:
• Cycadophyta (Lower gymnosperm)
• Coniferophyta (Higher gymnosperm)
  • Examples of gymnosperms are cycas, ginkgo, pinus, etc.

• Ginkgo is a kind of tree that is considered one of the oldest living trees.
• It dates back to 200 million ago.
• Ginkgo is known as a living fossil because its present species have remained unchanged for the past 51 million years.
• This is the feature of a fossil.

• The fusion of the male gamete and female gamete is called fertilization.
  • Fertilization of gametes results in the formation of a zygote.
• Gamete formation: These are cells used during sexual production. The male gamete is sperm while the female gamete is the egg or ova.
• Fertilization: This is the process where the male and female gametes fuse to form a single cell called a zygote.
• Zygote: This is the combination of the parent gene(male and female gene) formed during fertilization.
  • ​It contains the necessary genetic information to form a new human being.
• Embryo: This is the early stage of development of the new individual.

• The correct sequence of events is during reproduction in human beings.

  Gamete formation → Fertilization → Zygote → Embryo

• The frog breathes through its skin.

• Respiration is the process of exchanging gases in all life forms between an organism and its environment, which can occur in different ways, either independently or in tandem.
• The gills of a newly hatched Tadpole are external. When water passes over these gills, they take in oxygen.
• The gills are absorbed by the body as the tadpole matures, and become an internal part of the anatomy of the tadpole.
• Frogs can live both on land and in freshwater and belong to the class Amphibia of phylum Chordata.
• Frogs respire on land and in the water by two different methods. In water, skin acts as a respiratory organ(i.e cutaneous respiration) by diffusion.

​

Respiration is of 2 types:

• White blood cells are of an amoeboid shape with a distinctive central membrane.
• The amoeboid shape of WBCs helps them to squeeze out through the capillary wall.
• White blood cells help in defence mechanisms for our body.
• They play a major role in putting away foreign particles.
• At the site of infection, white blood cells accumulate to destroy pathogens.
• Their amoeboid shape assists them to squeeze through blood capillaries and at the same time their pseudopodia help to kill pathogens by the process of phagocytosis.
• They change their shape in order to sink bacteria and separate invaders in the body in order to protect the body against diseases and infections.

• Nerve cells (neurones) are 'excitable' cells which can transduce a variety of stimuli into electrical signals, continuously sending information about the external and internal environment (in the form of sequences of action potentials) to the central nervous system (CNS).
• Guard cells are pairs of epidermal cells that control gas diffusion by regulating the opening and closure of stomatal pores. Guard cells, like other types of plant cells, are surrounded by a three-dimensional, extracellular network of polysaccharide-based wall polymers.
• Red blood cells contain a protein called haemoglobin, which carries oxygen from the lungs to all parts of the body. Checking the number of red blood cells in the blood is usually part of a complete blood cell (CBC) test. A type of blood cell that is made in the bone marrow and found in the blood.

• A vacuole is a membrane-bound cell organelle.
• In animal cells, vacuoles are generally small and help sequester waste products.
• In plant cells, vacuoles help maintain water balance.
• Sometimes a single vacuole can take up most of the interior space of the plant cell.

• Plastids
  • Plastids are double-membrane organelles that are found in the cells of plants and algae.
  • Plastids are responsible for manufacturing and storing food.
• Cytosols
  • The cytosol is the liquid medium contained within a cell.
  • The cytosol is a component of the cytoplasm.
• Golgi apparatus
  • The Golgi apparatus, also known as the Golgi complex, Golgi body, or simply the Golgi, is an organelle found in most eukaryotic cells.

• Melatonin is secreted by Pineal Gland.
  • It is involved in the regulation of biological rhythms of the body and sleep.
  • It is usually secreted in darkness hence also known as "Dracula of Hormones".
  • Sometimes it can be consumed from external sources by mouth to adjust the body's internal clock, as well as its external supplements.
• The pineal Gland is situated in the middle of the human brain and is the major site of the body's melatonin.

• Progesterone hormone is released during the course of pregnancy hence also known as pregnancy hormone.
  • It inhibits the contraction of the uterus so that pregnancy can be sustained.
• Epinephrine also known as Adrenaline, is a hormone produced by adrenal glands and the small number of neurons in the medulla oblongata.
  • It relaxes muscles in the airways and tightens the blood vessels.
• ​Insulin is a hormone secreted by the pancreas.
  • It controls the amount of glucose in the bloodstream at any given moment.

• Vitamin D is a hormone produced by the kidneys.
• The liver and kidneys convert vitamin D into the active hormone, which is called calcitriol.
• It primarily helps in controlling the concentration of calcium in the blood.
• It is also vital for the development of strong bones.

• The female Anopheles mosquito is a transmitter of malaria.
• Malaria is an acute febrile disease caused by the Plasmodium parasite that is transmitted to people by the bite of a female Anopheles mosquito.
  • Plasmodium groups are single-celled microorganisms.
  • The disease is widespread in tropical and sub-tropical regions around the equator.

• Some examples of infectious diseases and their agents are given below.

• The ovule is the component of flowering plants that produces seeds.
• It is produced in the flower's ovary and consists of the nucellus, which is covered with integuments, as well as the predecessors to the embryo and endosperm and the seed coat, respectively.
• A developed ovule consists of a food tissue surrounded by one or two integuments, which will serve as the seed coats in the future.
• The pollen tube can penetrate and release its sperm nuclei into the embryo sac, a large oval cell where fertilization and development take place, through a small aperture (the micropyle) in the integuments.
• Each ovule is joined to the stalk (funiculus) bearing it by the base of the ovule.
• In gymnosperms (conifers and allies) the ovules lie uncovered on the scales of the cone.
• In angiosperms (flowering plants), one or more ovules are enclosed by the ovary, which develops into the fruit.

• Sepals:
  • Sepals, which are altered leaves, enclose the budding flower.
  • They are sterile floral components that can either be green, leaf-like, or made of tissue resembling petals.
• Stamen:
  • This are the male reproductive organs of flowering plants.
• Petals:
  • The parts of a flower that are often conspicuously colored are called petals.

The correct is answer Mitochondria.

• The proteins synthesized by the proteins in mitochondria are utilized to generate adenosine triphosphate (ATP) from the food.
• This ATP acts as the energy currency of the cell, because of which the whole cell and body get energy. Thus, mitochondria are called the powerhouse of the cells.
• This happens by breaking down food substances such as carbohydrates and fats in the presence of oxygen.
• The ribosomes are non-non-membrane-bound organelles that help in the synthesis of proteins.

• Red blood cells carry oxygen from our lungs to the rest of our bodies. Then they make the return trip, taking carbon dioxide back to our lungs to be exhaled.
• White blood cells are part of the body's immune system. They help the body fight infection and other diseases. Types of white blood cells are granulocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils), monocytes, and lymphocytes (T cells and B cells).
• The plasma membrane, also called the cell membrane, is the membrane found in all cells that separate the interior of the cell from the outside environment. In bacterial and plant cells, a cell wall is attached to the plasma membrane on its outside surface.

• Petiole is like a stem that attaches the leaf blade to the stem.
  • Long thin flexible petioles allow leaf blades to flutter in wind, thereby cooling the leaf and bringing fresh air to leaf surface.

​

• Pistil: The pistil is the innermost part of the flower. It is the female part of the flower.
• Stamen: The stamen is the male part of the flower.
• Petals: The petal is the coloured part of the flower that gives it a unique shape.
• Sepals: These are leaf-like structures attached to the outside of the flower. They're very similar to petals.
• The schematic diagram of the flower is as follows:

• Salivary amylaseis a glucose-polymer cleavage enzyme that is produced by the salivary glands.
• Amylases' main function is to hydrolyze the glycosidic bonds in starch molecules, converting complex carbohydrates to simple sugars.
• There are three main classes of amylase enzymes; Alpha-, beta- and gamma-amylase, and each act on different parts of the carbohydrate molecule.
• Amylases are used in breadmaking and to break down complex sugars, such as starch (found in flour), into simple sugars.

• Renin is an enzyme that helps control your blood pressure and maintain healthy levels of sodium and potassium in your body.
• Trypsin is an enzyme that aids with digestion. An enzyme is a protein that speeds up a certain biochemical reaction.
• An enzyme made in the stomach that breaks down proteins in food during digestion. Stomach acid changes a protein called pepsinogen into pepsin.

• Arthropoda is the largest phylum in the animal kingdom.
• Their body consists of the head, thorax, and abdomen.
• They have jointed appendages.
• The body of arthropods is covered by exoskeleton.
• The exoskeleton is defined as the external skeleton that supports and protects an animal's body.
• Examples of Phylum Arthropoda are cockroaches, Prawn, Crabs, Millipede, scorpions, Centipede, Housefly, Ticks, and Mites.

• The animals which possess true coelom are called eucoelomates or coelomates. The true coelom is a body cavity which arises as a cavity in embryonic mesoderm.
• In more simpler words, any animal possessing a fluid-filled cavity within which the digestive system is suspended is called coelomates.
• Living organisms are classified into five kingdoms.
  • ​Kingdom Monera.
  • Kingdom Protista.
  • Kingdom Fungi.
  • Kingdom Plante.
  • Kingdom Animalia.

• Plasma's function is to transport nutrients, hormones, and proteins throughout the body.
• It also transports waste products of cell metabolism from different tissues to the organs that detoxify and/or excrete them.
• Plasma is 90% water, with the remaining 10% consisting of ions, proteins, dissolved gases, nutritional molecules, and wastes.
• Plasma proteins are of three different types: albumin, globulins, and fibrinogen.
• Albumin:
  • Albumin aids in the maintenance of the blood's colloid osmotic pressure.
  • It is the smallest of the plasma proteins, but it accounts for the majority of the total.
  • The blood's colloid osmotic pressure is critical for maintaining a balance between the water inside the blood and the water in the tissue fluid surrounding the cells.
  • When plasma proteins are lacking, the water in the plasma leaks into the area around the blood vessels, causing interstitial edema, which is a symptom of liver illness, kidney disease, and malnutrition, among other things.
  • Albumin also aids in the transfer of a variety of molecules, including medicines, hormones, and fatty acids.

• Leptin:
  • Leptin is a hormone released by adipose tissue (body fat) that helps your body maintain a healthy weight over time.
  • This is accomplished by providing the sensation of satiety, which regulates appetite (feeling full).
  • Insulin stimulates leptin secretion via a posttranscriptional process including the PI3K-PKBmTOR pathway, as well as other unidentified mechanisms.
• Keratin:
  • It is a protein that can be found in your hair, skin, and nails.
  • Keratin is also found in the organs and glands of the body.
  • Keratin protects epithelial cells, strengthens the skin, strengthens internal organs, controls the growth of epithelial cells, and maintains elasticity in the skin. It also holds + cells together and helps them combat mechanical stress.
• Insulin:
  • Insulin is a hormone created by your pancreas that controls the amount of glucose in your bloodstream at any given moment.
  • It also helps store glucose in your liver, fat, and muscles.
  • It regulates your body's metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins.

Concept:-

• The human eye is one of the most valuable and sensitive sense organs.
• It uses light and enables us to see the colorful world around us.
• The human eye is more or less like a photographic camera.
• The eye's lens system forms an image of an object on a light-sensitive screen.
• The eyeball is almost spherical, having a diameter of about 23 mm.

​Two photoreceptor cells, viz., the rods and cones are present in the retina.

• Rods -
  • They are adapted for visibility in low illumination and in the dark due to the presence of a pigment called rhodopsin.
  • They help in twilight or scotopic vision.
• Cones -
  • ​These contain the pigment iodopsin that aids visibility in high illumination.
  • They contain 3 specific photopigments for red, blue, and green lights.
  • They help in color vision as well as daylight or photopic vision.

• Rod cells work the best in dim light.
• The blind spot is a small portion of the visual field of each eye that corresponds to the position of the optic disk (also known as the optic nerve head) within the retina.
• The fovea is a tiny pit located in the macula of the retina that provides the clearest vision.

• Invertebrates with pentaradial symmetry, spiny skin, a water circulatory system, and a simple nervous system are known as echinoderms.
• There are around 7,000 extant species in this phylum.
• Echinodermata are only found in the sea.
• Echinoderms include sea stars, sea cucumbers, sea urchins, sand dollars, and brittle stars.
• Echinoderms feature a calcareous endoskeleton with pentaradial symmetry and pigment cells that give them a wide spectrum of hues, as well as cells that contain poisons.
• Water circulates through an echinoderm's water vascular system, which is made up of a central ring of canals that extends along each arm for gaseous exchange and nutrition.
• Echinoderms have two sexes that release their eggs and sperm into the water, where the sperm fertilizes the eggs.
  Echinoderms have the ability to reproduce asexually through regeneration.
• The neurological system of echinoderms is exceedingly simple, consisting of a nerve ring in the center and five radial nerves radiating outward along the arms; there is no brain.​

• Phylum Annelida:
  • Phylum Annelida contains the class Polychaeta (the polychaetes) and the class Oligochaeta (the earthworms, leeches, and their relatives).
  • These species can be found in a variety of settings, including marine, terrestrial, and freshwater, but the presence of water or humidity is essential for their survival, especially in terrestrial habitats.
  • This phylum's animals form parasitic and commensal symbioses with other species in their environment.
  • Because of its important property of metamerism, or real segmentation, annelids are commonly referred to as "segmented worms" throughout embryonic stages.
• Phylum Arthropoda:
  • It includes animals that have been successful in colonizing terrestrial, aquatic, and aerial habitats.
  • Arthropods have jointed legs and a chitin exoskeleton.
  • Arthropods have a segmented body plan that contains fused segments divided into regions called tagma.
  • Arthropods have an open circulatory system and can breathe through their book gills, book lungs, or tracheal tubes.
• Phylum Mollusca:
  • Phylum Mollusca is the predominant phylum in marine environments.
  • Mollusks have a soft body with a muscular foot, a visceral mass of internal organs, and a mantle, among other features.
  • The muscular foot of a mollusk is utilized for mobility and anchoring, and it comes in a variety of shapes and functions, as well as the ability to extend and retract.
  • The digestive, nervous, excretory, reproductive, and respiratory systems are all part of the mollusk's visceral mass.
  • Most mollusks have a radula, which looks like a tongue but has teeth-like projections for shredding or scraping food.

Respiration in Plants

• It is a biochemical process wherein air moves between the external environment and the tissues and cells of the species.
• The process of respiration in plants involves using the sugars produced during photosynthesis plus oxygen to produce energy for plant growth.
• In many ways, respiration is the opposite of photosynthesis.
• While photosynthesis takes place in the leaves and stems only, respiration occurs in the leaves, stems and roots of the plant.
• The process of respiration is represented as follows → C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + 32 ATP (energy)
• In respiration, inhalation of oxygen and exhalation of carbon dioxide gas takes place.
• Leaves possess stomata – tiny pores, for gaseous exchange. The oxygen consumed via stomata is used up by cells in the leaves to disintegrate glucose into water and carbon dioxide.
• Roots, the underground part of the plants, absorbs air from the air gaps/spaces found between the soil particles.
• The air in the case of stem diffuses into the stomata and moves through different parts of the cell to respire.

• Rickets
  • The softening and weakening of bones in children, usually because of an extreme and prolonged vitamin D deficiency.
  • Rare inherited problems also can cause rickets.
  • Lack of vitamin D results in reduced absorption of calcium and phosphorus.
  • Treatment includes exposure to sunlight, a diet rich in vitamin D and calcium, supplements, medication or possibly surgery.

• Metamorphosis process: The transformation of the larva into an adult through drastic changes is called metamorphosis. It is a biological process that involves sudden and abrupt changes in the body structure of the animal by cell growth and differentiation. It is generally observed in amphibians and insects. Examples: frogs and butterflies.

• Metamorphosis of a butterfly
  • There are four stages in the process of the Metamorphosis of a butterfly.
  • The first stage is the egg.
  • The Butterfly eggs are laid on the plants by the female Butterfly.
  • The second stage is the larva stage in which the butterfly exists in the form of a caterpillar.
  • The Third stage is Pupa which is the transitional phase in which the Caterpillar changes into Butterfly.
  • The fourth stage is the Adult stage in which a full-grown adult butterfly comes out of the pupa.

• Complete metamorphosis is seen in butterflies.
• Complete metamorphosis consists of a very active, ravenously eating larval stage and an inactive pupa stage while the incomplete metamorphosis has a nymph, which very closely resembles the adult
• Examples of insects showing Complete metamorphosis - wasps, ants, butterflies, and fleas
• Examples of insects showing Incomplete metamorphosis - are termites, praying mantis, and cockroaches

• The characteristic features of permanent tissue are:
  • Cells have intercellular spaces to keep them separated.
  • The cells may be living or dead, i.e.the protoplasm is either present or absent.
  • Tissue may have only one type of cell or may have different kinds of cells.
  • The cell wall is either cellulosic or along with cellulose other complex carbohydrates may be present.
  • Cells may vary in shape, i.e., either round or oval or polygonal, etc.
  • In the living cells, the cytoplasm is present surrounding a large central vacuole.
  • Cells do not divide at all.

• Types of permanent tissue:
• Permanent tissues are of three types, namely –
  • (a) Simple tissue, (b) Complex tissue and (c) Secretory tissue.
• ​Simple permanent tissue
  • Simple permanent tissue is composed of a single type of cells that have comparable origin, structure, and function.
• Types of simple permanent tissue
  • Parenchyma – It provides temporary support and maintains the shape of the plant body. They have thin-walled cells with large vacuoles.
  • Collenchyma – It provides mechanical support and elasticity and flexibility to young dicotyledonous plants. They have thickened cell walls at corners, giving mechanical strength.
  • Sclerenchyma – It provides strength and toughness to plant parts. They have dead cells with extremely thick walls (lignin deposition). Sclerenchyma may be either fibres or sclereids
• Complex permanent tissue
  • Complex permanent tissue is composed of two or more two types of cells and contributes to a general function.
  • They organize together to carry out similar particular functions in the plant body.
  • It is also known as vascular tissue.
• Types of complex tissue:
  • Xylem – The xylem tissue is accountable for the transmission of water and minerals from the roots to the leaves and stems.
  • Phloem – This complex permanent tissue helps in the translocation of food that is prepared by photosynthesis in the leaves to diverse parts of the plant.

• Cold-blooded Animals- are animals that cannot regulate their internal body temperature with the change in the environment.
• Warm-blooded animal-A warm-blooded animal, for example, a bird or a mammal, has a fairly high body temperature which does not change much and is not affected by the surrounding temperature.
• About Rabbit:
  • Oryctolagus cuniculus, scientfic name of rabbit.
  • A baby rabbit is called a kit, a female is called a doe and a male is called a buck.
  • A rabbit's teeth never stop growing.
  • It belongs to the class Mammalia, so they are warm-blooded animals.
  • Rabbits’ eyes are on the sides of their head, meaning they can see almost all the way around them.

• Sharks.
  • Sharks don't have bones.
  • Scientists hypothesize sharks first appeared in the ocean around 455 million years ago.
  • Not all sharks have the same teeth.
  • There are more than 500 species of sharks and range in different sizes.
  • Sharks have six highly refined senses: smell, hearing, touch, taste, sight, and electromagnetism.
• Crocodile.
  • Crocodiles are reptiles.
  • Crocodiles have the strongest bite of any animal in the world.​
  • Most crocodiles live in freshwater rivers and lakes but some live in salt water.
  • Crocodiles can hold their breath underwater for at least one hour.
  • The saltwater crocodile has an average lifespan of 70 years, The Nile crocodile can live up to 100 years.
  • The saltwater crocodile is the largest aquatic reptile on Earth.
• ​Frog.
  • There are 6,000 species of frogs across the world.​
  • Frogs actually drink water through their skin by absorbing it.
  • Each frog species has its own special call.
  • In natural populations, this frog lives for a maximum of 5 years; the reproductive age ranges between 3–5 years.​

• Chromosomes reside inside the nucleus of cells.
• These are threadlike structures made of protein and a single molecule of DNA.
• It serves the purpose to carry the genomic information from cell to cell.
• A chromosome is a long DNA molecule with part or all of the genetic material of an organism.
• Most eukaryotic chromosomes include packaging proteins called histones which are aided by chaperone proteins.
• Together they bind and condense the DNA molecule to maintain its integrity.

• In humans, each cell normally contains 23 pairs of chromosomes, for a total of 46.
• 22 of these pairs are known as autosomes having identical looks in both males and females.
• 23rd pair, the sex chromosomes, differ between males and females.
  • Females have two copies of the X chromosome while males have one X and one Y chromosome.

• Tetanus is a serious disease of the nervous system caused by a toxin-producing bacterium.
• The disease causes muscle contractions, particularly of your jaw and neck muscles.
• Tetanus is commonly known as lockjaw.
• There's no cure for tetanus.
• Treatment focuses on managing symptoms and complications until the effects of the tetanus toxin resolve.

• Signs and symptoms of generalized tetanus include:
  • Painful muscle spasms and stiff, immovable muscles (muscle rigidity) in your jaw.
  • The tension of muscles around your lips sometimes produces a persistent grin.
  • Painful spasms and rigidity in your neck muscles.
  • Difficulty in swallowing.
  • Rigid abdominal muscles.

• Sericulture is the process of producing raw silk by growing caterpillars (larvae), particularly domesticated silkworm larvae (Bombyx mori).
• It is used in clothing, upholsteries, surgical sutures, beddings, parachutes, etc.
• Sericulture employs a number of procedures that can be hazardous to farmers; one by-product emitted during the rearing process is carbon monoxide, which can cause skin allergies, irritation, and respiratory issues.
• China is the world's largest silk producer. China leads silk production, producing roughly six times as much as India, its closest competitor in terms of volume.

• Viticulture:
  • Viticulture is the study of the cultivation and harvesting of grapes, as well as the sequence of events that take place in the vineyard.
  • Viniculture refers to the process of creating wine from grapes.
  • China was the world's top grape producer, accounting for 16.9% of global production.
• Floriculture:
  • The study of growing and marketing flowers and foliage plants is known as floriculture or flower farming.
  • Floriculture is the cultivation of flowering and attractive plants for direct sale or as raw materials in the cosmetics and perfume industries, as well as in the pharmaceutical industry.
  • The Netherlands is the world's largest flower producer, accounting for roughly 68% of global flower production.
• Arboriculture:
  • Individual trees, shrubs, vines, and other perennial woody plants are studied, cultivated, and managed in arboriculture.
  • The objectives of arboriculture are to provide an attractive landscape on the roadside and to provide pleasant views of parking places.

• Unicellular organisms are made up of single cells.
  • They may be eukaryotic or prokaryotic.
  • They can survive in any environment.
  • They are so small cannot be seen with the naked eye.
  • They reproduce asexually.
  • Some unicellular organisms are bacteria, protists, and yeast.

• Multicellular organism
  • These are the organism are consist of more than one cell.
  • They are only eukaryotic.
  • Reproduction takes place sexually as well as asexually.
  • Plants, animals, and birds are examples.
  • They are both microscopic and macroscopic.

• Spirulina
  • Spirulina is a unicellular Blue-Green Algae.
  • It is an edible Blue Green Algae because it has large amount of proteins present.
  • It can be grown artificially in water tanks.
  • It is fodder for cattle.
• Chlorella
  • Chlorella (green algae) is known as the Space algae and is used in space research.
  • It serves as a good source of food for humans in space as it contains a high level of iron, vitamins and amino acids.
  • It grows easily in the presence of sunlight, minerals and water and using hydroponics.

• Spirogyra
  • Spirogyra is a kind of Algae.
  • It is a large genus (about 400 species) of freshwater green algae found in shallow ponds, ditches and amongst the vegetation of large lakes.
  • It does not form any gametes and reproduction takes place entirely within the algae.
  • It often grows in short-lived ponds that build up during wet weather and dry up subsequently.
• Funaria
  • Funaria belongs to the group Bryophyta.
  • They don't have a vascular system.
  • Funaria fertilisation is dependent on water for the transfer of sperm to the egg.
  • The main plant body is a gametophyte which is independent and the sporophyte is partially or fully dependent on gametophytic generation.
  • Funaria is a type of Moss commonly called Rope moss or Cord moss.

• Different species of Plasmodium (a tiny protozoan) are responsible for different types of malaria, of these, malignant malaria which is the most serious is caused by plasmodium falciparum.
• Plasmodia are a type of protozoa. Humans are usually infected with Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium vivax, Plasmodium malariae, and Plasmodium ovale. P falciparum is the most serious of the three.
• Plasmodium falciparum is a human unicellular protozoan parasite that causes malaria. It is the deadliest Plasmodium species.
• The parasite is spread via the bite of a female Anopheles mosquito, which produces falciparum malaria, the most deadly form of the disease.

• Human malaria is caused by Plasmodium Malariae, a parasitic protozoan.
• Plasmodium vivax is a human pathogen and a protozoal parasite. This parasitic infection is the most common and widespread cause of recurrent malaria.

• Malaria is a parasitic disease spread by mosquitoes. Humans are infected with the parasite after being bitten by infected mosquitoes.
• Malaria makes people feel very sick, with a high fever and shivering chills.
• Malaria is still frequent in tropical and subtropical nations, despite its rarity in temperate settings.

• The cell wall is the outer covering of a cell, present adjacent to the cell membrane, which is also called the plasma membrane.
• The cell wall is present in all plant cells, fungi, bacteria, algae, and some archaea.
• An animal cell is irregular in its shape and this is mainly due to the lack of a cell wall.
• The compositions of the cell wall usually vary along with organisms.
• It provides tensile strength and protection against mechanical and osmotic stress.

• The cell membrane is also called the plasma membrane.
• It is found in all cells and separates the interior of the cell from the outside environment.
• The cell membrane consists of a lipid bilayer that is semi-permeable.
• It regulates the transport of materials entering and exiting the cell.

Plastids

• Plastids are double-membrane organelles that are found in the cells of plants and algae.
• They are responsible for manufacturing and storing food.
• These often contain pigments that are used in photosynthesis and different types of pigments that can change the color of the cell.

Vacuole

• The term “vacuole” means “empty space”.
• They help in the storage and disposal of various substances.
• They can store food or other nutrients required by a cell to survive.
• They also store waste products and prevent the entire cell from contamination.
• The vacuoles in plant cells are larger than those in animal cells.

• The 5 ‘F’s refer to the possible ways of spreading communicable diseases.
• Communicable diseases refer to those diseases that occur due to the transmission of pathogens(causative agents) from one living to another.
• The possible ways of transmission are:
  • Food - contaminated food.
  • Fingers - unwashed hands and dirty fingernails.
  • Fluids - water and other fluids.
  • Fomite - objects or materials like utensils, clothes, towels, etc.
  • Faeces - excreta from infected person.

• Fungi is a micro organism responsible for fungal infection.
• It is not a way of spreading communicable diseases but it is a cause of many diseases.

• Elephantiasis disease, in which there is a chronic inflammation of the organs, is caused by the Wuchereria worms.

• The disease 'Elephantiasis' or 'Filariasis' is transmitted by the bite of an infected mosquito.
• The saliva of the infected mosquito carries the parasite larva of the worms causing filariasis
• This parasitic larva enters the bloodstream of the person from where it migrates to the lymphatic vessels and develops to become adult worms.
• The parasite worms causing this are Wuchereria malayi & Wuchereria bancrofti
• These worms create a blockage of lymph vessels that results in intense swelling. The lower limbs of the infected person appear like the legs of an elephant, thus it is named elephantiasis
• The genital organs may also get affected, leading to severe deformation.

• Generally, fruitflies are not disease carriers or vectors

• Poor sanitation conditions may NOT be the likely reason behind Arthritis.
• Arthritis is a condition in which one or more joints enlarge and become tender. Joint pain and stiffness are the most common symptoms of arthritis, which normally worsen with age.
• Osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis are the two most frequent kinds of arthritis. Cartilage — the firm, slippery tissue that covers the ends of bones where they form a joint — breaks down as a result of osteoarthritis.
• Rheumatoid arthritis is an autoimmune illness in which the immune system destroys the joints, starting with the lining.
• Diarrhoeal disorders including cholera and dysentery, as well as typhoid, intestinal worm infections, and polio, are all connected to poor sanitation. Stunting is exacerbated by poor nutrition, which also leads to the spread of antibiotic resistance.
• Children are in danger of childhood infections and malnutrition as a result of poor sanitation, which can have a negative influence on their general development, learning, and, later in life, economic opportunities.

• The poliovirus causes polio, a debilitating and potentially fatal disease. The virus can infect a person's spinal cord, causing paralysis (the inability to move parts of the body).
• Typhoid fever is a bacterial infection that can infect multiple organs and spread throughout the body.
• Cholera is a bacterial infection that is spread by drinking contaminated water.

• a group of vertebrates that comprises the living jawless fishes: the lampreys and hagfishes.
• They are modified and degenerate offshoots of the primitive vertebrate stalk.
• Because of their round mouths, they are named Cyclostomata.
• Notochord persists throughout life.
• The median fin is supported by cartilaginous fin-rays.

• Closely associated with the Platyhelminthes, are an obsolete phylum of pseudocoelomate
• Commonly called roundworms, the body appears circular in the transverse cross-section.
• They are free-living or parasites.
• They are found in soil, freshwater, or as a parasite on plants, animals, and even humans.
• The body is bilaterally symmetrical and triploblastic.

Hemichordata

• Consist of three classes: Enteropneusta, Pterobranchia, and Planctosphaeroidea.
• Enteropneusts or acorn worms are solitary, wormlike, bilaterally symmetrical animals, often brilliantly coloured.
• They are known as acorn worms because of the appearance of the proboscis and collar.

Arthropoda

• Invertebrate animals have an exoskeleton, a segmented body, and paired jointed appendages.
• They form the phylum Arthropoda.
• They are distinguished by their jointed limbs and cuticle made of chitin, often mineralised with calcium carbonate.

• Dyspraxia
  • Dyspraxia is a brain-based motor disorder.
  • It affects fine and gross motor skills, motor planning, and coordination.
  • Although it can affect cognitive skills, it’s not related to intelligence.
  • Children born with dyspraxia may be late to reach developmental milestones and behave immaturely.
  • They can find it challenging to make plans and carry them out.
  • They might have speech difficulties and appear clumsy, leading to the outdated term “clumsy child syndrome.”
  • The National Institutes of Health describes it as appearing “out of sync” with the environment.
  • Into adolescence and adulthood, symptoms of dyspraxia can lead to learning difficulties and low self-esteem.

• Algae photosynthesis accounts for at least half of all carbon dioxide fixing on the planet.
• They enhance the amount of dissolved oxygen in their immediate environment because they are photosynthetic.
• The conversion of inorganic carbon to organic carbon by living organisms is known as carbon dioxide fixation.

• Biological carbon fixation, also known as carbon assimilation, is the process by which living organisms transform inorganic carbon (most commonly in the form of carbon dioxide) into organic compounds.
• After that, the compounds are employed to store energy and provide structure for other biomolecules.
• Carbon is typically fixed through photosynthesis, however, in the absence of sunshine, some organisms use a process called chemosynthesis.
• Photosynthesis is the process through which plants produce oxygen and energy in the form of sugar from sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide.
• Plants, algae, and some bacteria are involved in the process, which gathers energy from the sun to produce oxygen (O2) and chemical energy stored in glucose (a sugar). Herbivores get their energy from plants, while predators get theirs from herbivores.

• Respiratory failure
  • Respiratory failure is a condition in which your blood doesn't have enough oxygen or has too much carbon dioxide.
  • Sometimes you can have both problems.
  • When you breathe, your lungs take in oxygen. The oxygen passes into your blood, which carries it to your organs.
  • Your organs, such as your heart and brain, need this oxygen-rich blood to work well.
  • Another part of breathing is removing the carbon dioxide from the blood and breathing it out.
  • Having too much carbon dioxide in your blood can harm your organs.
• Causes of Respiratory Failure
• Conditions that affect your breathing can cause respiratory failure.
• These conditions may affect the muscles, nerves, bones, or tissues that support breathing. The conditions are:
  • Diseases that affect the lungs, such as COPD (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease), cystic fibrosis, pneumonia, pulmonary embolism, and COVID-19
  • Conditions that affect the nerves and muscles that control breathing, such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), muscular dystrophy, spinal cord injuries, and stroke
  • Problems with the spine, such as scoliosis (a curve in the spine). They can affect the bones and muscles used for breathing.
  • Damage to the tissues and ribs around the lungs.
  • An injury to the chest can cause this damage.
  • Drug or alcohol overdose
  • Inhalation injuries, such as from inhaling the smoke (from fires) or harmful fumes
• Treatments for respiratory failure
  • Oxygen therapy
  • Tracheostomy
  • Ventilator
  • Other breathing treatments, such as noninvasive positive pressure ventilation (NPPV),
  • Fluids
  • Medicines

• Amphibians are those animals who are found both on land & water i.e. amphibians can live in aquatic as well as terrestrial habitats. Hence, statement 4 is correct.
• In Amphibians, respiration takes place through the gill, skin, and lungs.
  • ​During hibernation, frogs respire through the skin.
• They have porous skin that requires moisture. i.e the amphibian skin is moist (without scales). Hence, statement 1 is correct.
• They have three-chambered hearts, two auricles, and one ventricle.

• Frogs have two transparent eyelids, one on the bottom, one on the top, and a third semi-transparent eyelid called the nictitating membrane.
• Amphibians' eyes have eyelids. Hence, statement 3 is not a characteristic of the Amphibia class of animals.
• The body of Amphibians is divided into the head and trunk.
• In amphibians, a tympanum is located just behind the eye but it does not process sound waves; it simply transmits them to the inner parts of the amphibian's ear which are protected from the entry of water and other foreign objects. Hence, statement 2 is correct.
  • The tympanum is a large external oval-shaped membrane made up of non-glandular skin.
• They are cold-blooded.
• Examples of Amphibians are Frog, Necturus, Salamander, etc.

• Beta carotene is a plant pigment that gives red, orange, and yellow vegetables their vibrant colour.
• Beta carotene is considered a provitamin A carotenoid, meaning that the body can convert it into vitamin A (retinol). Additionally, beta carotene has powerful antioxidant properties.
• The name beta carotene comes from the Greek “beta” and Latin “carota” (carrot).
• It is the yellow/orange pigment that gives vegetables and fruits their rich colours.

• β-Cryptoxanthin is a natural carotenoid pigment.
• It has been isolated from a variety of sources including the fruit of plants in the genus Physalis, orange rind, papaya, egg yolk, butter, apples, and bovine blood serum.
• Zeaxanthin is a carotenoid molecule found in the cells of your eyes ( 1 , 2 ).
• Lutein is a carotenoid with reported anti-inflammatory properties. A large body of evidence shows that lutein has several beneficial effects, especially on eye health.

• Besides being segmented, the body wall of Annelida is characterized by being made up of both circular and longitudinal muscle fibres surrounded by a moist, acellular cuticle that is secreted by an epidermal epithelium.
• The body cavity of annelids is lined by epithelium.
• Successive body segments are separated by walls that correspond to the external rings.
• In grooves between the segments of some oligochaetes are dorsal pores through which coelomic fluid may be discharged.

• The phylum Arthropoda contains a wide diversity of animals with hard exoskeletons and jointed appendages.
• The flatworms, flatworms, Platyhelminthes, or platyhelminths are a phylum of relatively simple bilaterian, unsegmented, soft-bodied invertebrates.
• Coelenterata is a term encompassing the animal phyla Cnidaria (coral animals, true jellies, sea anemones, sea pens, and their relatives) and Ctenophora (comb jellies).

• Hexoses, glucose, and fructose are the most common monosaccharides found in fruits and vegetables.
• Fructose is a monosaccharide, a form of sugar. Fructose, like other sugars, has four calories per gram.
• Fructose is often known as "fruit sugar" since it is found in many fruits naturally. Other plant foods that include it include honey, sugar beets, sugar cane, and vegetables.
• The main sugar in human blood is glucose. It is the human body's major source of energy and comes from the food you eat.
• Human blood transports glucose to all of the human body's cells for energy production. Diabetes is a condition in which blood sugar levels are abnormally high.​

• Monosaccharides, often known as simple sugars, are the most basic sugar molecules (monomers) from which all carbohydrates are constructed.
• They are usually white, crystalline solids that are water-soluble. Only a few monosaccharides have a sweet flavour, despite their name (sugars).
• Disaccharides (such as sucrose and lactose) and polysaccharides are made up of monosaccharides (such as cellulose and starch).
• The common table sugar, sucrose, is a disaccharide that contains one molecule of each of the two monosaccharides D-glucose and D-fructose.

• Thick-Walled spore in Bacteria
  • In order to withstand unfavourable conditions such intense boiling and freezing temperatures and ultraviolet radiations, bacteria create thick-walled spores known as endospores.
  • The organism may withstand years of struggle inside such structures and germinate when the conditions are favourable.
  • The kind of adaptation that is seen in bacteria when they form various kinds of thick-walled spore are suspension.
  • Exosporium, spore coat, spore cortex, and core wall are the order in which the spore layers are arranged in an endosperm.
  • Both asexual and sexual reproduction results in the creation of these spores.
  • Sporulation is the process by which one endosperm forms inside a bacterium when there is a shortage of nourishment, particularly carbon and nitrogen sources.

• Migrate
  • When an organism can't handle the temperature, it will move temporarily from a harsh habitat to a more hospitable one.
  • They return once the difficult time is passed.
  • For example, during harsh winters, birds exhibit long-distance migrations.
• Conform
  • The majority of animals and plants are unable to maintain a steady interior environment.
  • In response to their environment, their body parameters change.
  • For example, although pokilothermic creatures are simple conformers, they are unable to regulate their body temperatures. The bodily fluids of a select few aquatic species alter in osmotic concentration in response to the osmotic pressure outside.
  • There are few conformers that can control the parameters within a certain range.
• Regulate
  • Using this technique, organisms modify their physiology and behaviour to maintain homeostasis.
  • They can execute osmoregulation or thermoregulation because of homeostasis.
  • For example, regardless of the ambient temperature, all mammals and birds exhibit consistent body temperature and osmotic concentration.

• Funaria is a genus of approximately 210 species of moss.
• Funaria hygrometrica is the most common species.
• Funaria hygrometrica is called “cord moss” because of the twisted seta which is very hygroscopic and untwists when moist.
• The name is derived from the Latin word “funis”, meaning "a rope".

​

• Seta: the stalk of a moss sporangium, or occasionally in a liverwort
• Rhizoid: a rootlike structure that acts as support and anchors the plant to its substrate
• Peristome: one or two rings of tooth-like appendages surrounding the opening of the capsule of many mosses that aid in spreading spores

• Vitamins are required for the body to work properly.
• There are 13 essential vitamins. They are:
  • Vitamin A
  • Vitamin C
  • Vitamin D
  • Vitamin E
  • Vitamin K
  • Vitamin B1 (thiamine)
  • Vitamin B2 (riboflavin)
  • Vitamin B3 (niacin)
  • Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine)
  • Vitamin B12 (cyanocobalamin)
  • Pantothenic acid (B5)
  • Biotin (B7)
  • Folate (folic acid or B9)

• Allergyalso known as hypersensitivity, is used to describe a condition in which the human body has an exaggerated response to a substance (e.g. food or drug).
• Hypersensitive (also known as hypersensitivity reaction or intolerance) refers to the immune system's unfavourable reactions, such as allergies and autoimmunity.
• These reactions are commonly referred to as an immune system overreaction, and they can be harmful and unpleasant.
• This is an immunologic phrase that should not be confused with the psychiatric term hypersensitivity, which refers to someone who is highly sensitive to physical (sound, touch, light, etc.) and/or emotional stimuli.
• Pollen, moulds, animal dander, latex, certain foods, and insect stings are examples of generally harmless substances that can cause allergies.

• An infection is the infiltration of disease-causing pathogens into an organism's bodily tissues, their multiplication, and the host tissues' reaction to the infectious agents and the toxins they create.
• A mutation is a change in an organism's DNA sequence. Mutations can occur as a result of mistakes in DNA replication during cell division, mutagen exposure, or viral infection.
• People use the term "convulsion" to describe involuntary muscle contractions.

• The algae reproduce by three different methods, namely:
  • vegetative reproduction,
  • asexual reproduction, and
  • sexual reproduction.

• Vegetative propagation is a process in which plants reproduce from stems, roots and leaves.
  • Since reproduction is through the vegetative parts of the plant, it is known as vegetative propagation.
  • The roots of some plants can also give rise to new plants. Sweet potato and dahlia are examples.
• Algae regenerate by sexual reproduction, involving male and female gametes (sex cells).
  • A species of yellow-green alga called Vaucheria sessilis is an example of a sexually reproducing alga.
• Many small algae reproduce asexually by ordinary cell division or by fragmentation, whereas larger algae reproduce by spores.

• The nucleus is a large double-membraned organelle that is sometimes referred to as the ‘central unit’ of the cell because it contains the chromosomes that bear genetic material.
  • It is a membrane-bound organelle found in eukaryotic cells.
  • The main structures making up the nucleus are the nuclear envelope, a double membrane that encloses the entire organelle and isolates its contents from the cellular cytoplasm.
  • The nuclear matrix (which includes the nuclear lamina), is a network within the nucleus that adds mechanical support, much like the cytoskeleton supports the cell as a whole.
  • It contains DNA arranged in chromosomes.

• Peroxisome
  • Peroxisomes are small, membrane-enclosed organelles that contain enzymes involved in a variety of metabolic reactions, including several aspects of energy metabolism.
• Mitochondrion
  • Mitochondria are membrane-bound cell organelles that generate most of the chemical energy needed to power the cell's biochemical reactions.
  • Chemical energy produced by the mitochondria is stored in a small molecule called adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
• Lysosome
  • Membrane-enclosed organelles contain an array of enzymes capable of breaking down all types of biological polymers—proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids.

• Small amounts of ghrelin are also released by the small intestine, pancreas, and brain.
• Ghrelin is primarily synthesised and released by the stomach.
• Ghrelin serves a variety of purposes. Because it stimulates appetite, increases food intake, and encourages fat storage, it is known as the "hunger hormone."
• Ghrelin circulates in the bloodstream and works in the hypothalamus, a region of the brain important in the regulation of appetite, increasing food intake in humans by up to 30%.​

• The INS gene in humans encodes insulin, a peptide hormone generated by beta cells of the pancreatic islets.
  • It is regarded as the body's primary anabolic hormone.
• Resistin is a cysteine-rich peptide hormone produced by adipose tissue and is encoded by the RETN gene in humans.
  • Other names for resistin include adipose tissue-specific secretory factor (ADSF) and C/EBP-epsilon-regulated myeloid-specific secreted cysteine-rich protein (XCP1).
• Leptin is a hormone primarily produced by enterocytes and adipocytes in the small intestine.
  • It inhibits appetite, which in turn reduces fat storage in adipocytes and aids in the regulation of energy balance.

• The aquatic organisms in which the osmotic concentration and temperature of the body change according to the ambient conditions of water are referred to as conformers.
• The natural source of water that is present in our surroundings in the environment like in ponds, lakes, rivers etc. is termed as ambient water.
• The osmotic concentration of that water is 'ambient water osmotic concentration'.
• Osmoregulation is the active regulation of the osmotic pressure of an organism 's fluids to maintain the homeostasis of the organism 's water content.

• Migrate - to move from one country or region to another Families migrated west in search of work.
• Suspend - The state in which the particles of a substance are dispersed but not totally dissolved in a fluid.
• Biological regulation is what allows an organism to handle the effects of a perturbation, modulating its own constitutive dynamics in response to particular changes in internal and external conditions.

• DNA​
  • DNA stands for Deoxyribonucleic Acid.
  • There are four types of nitrogen bases;
    • i.e. Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Guanine (G), and Cytosine (C). Hence, Option 1 is incorrect.
• DNA is the molecule that is the hereditary material in all living cellsbecause it contains the genetic code which are instructions needed for an organism to grow, develop, survive and reproduce. Hence, option 3 is correct.
  • So, ​DNA is called the blueprint of life.
• DNA is made up of a polymer chain comprised of smaller monomers called nucleotides.
• Each nucleotide has three-part i.e. a sugar group, a phosphate group, and a nitrogen base. Hence, option 4 is correct.
• A gene consists of enough DNA to code for one protein, and a genome is simply the sum total of an organism's DNA. DNA is long and skinny, capable of contorting it into chromosomes. Hence, Option 2 is correct.

​

• Colostrum a fluid secreted by new mothers during the initial days of lactation contains nutrients that boost a baby's immune system and helps fight infection.
• Colostrum is a supplement made from a yellowish milky fluid that's released from the mothers during the initial days of lactation.
• It provides passive immunity.
• It is an antibody-rich fluid.
• It also provides several important growth hormones and other compounds such as lactoferrin for newborns.

• The sebum layer is an oily substance produced in the sebaceous glands.
• Synovial membranes are composed of connective tissue and surround the cavity of joints.
• A naturally occurring substance that protects, cleans and lubricated the outer auditory canal is known as 'Cerumen'.

• Ciliate, or ciliophoran, any member of the protozoan phylum Ciliophora, is generally considered the most evolved and complex of protozoans.
• Ciliophora (phylum Protozoa)is a subphylum of protozoa in which cilia are present during at least one stage of the life cycle.
• Two different types of nucleus (macronucleus and micronucleus) are normally present.
• Cells reproduce by binary fission.
• Some examples of the phylum Ciliophora include:
  • Spirostomum ambiguum
  • Strombidium lagenula
  • Paramecium caudatum
  • Paramecium aurelia
  • Spirostomum minus etc.

• ​Sipuncula
  • ​The Sipuncula or Sipunculida is a class containing about 162 species of unsegmented marine annelid worms.
  • Scientific name: Sipuncula.​​
  • Phylum: Annelida.
  • Kingdom: Animalia.
• Rotifers
  • ​The rotifers, commonly called wheel animals or wheel animalcules, make up a phylum of microscopic and near-microscopic pseudocoelomate animals.
  • Scientific name: Rotifera.
  • Phylum: Rotifera.
  • Kingdom: Animalia.
• Echinoderm
  • ​An echinoderm is any member of the phylum Echinodermata.
  • The adults are recognisable by their radial symmetry, and include starfish, brittle stars, sea urchins, sand dollars, and sea cucumbers, as well as the sea lilies or "stone lilies".
  • Kingdom: Animalia.
  • Subkingdom: Eumetazoa.
• Protozoa
  • ​Protozoa is an informal term for a group of single-celled eukaryotes, either free-living or parasitic, that feed on organic matter such as other microorganisms or organic tissues and debris.